The Positivist School of Criminology 

•         Positivism - a method of inquiry that attempts to answers questions through the scientific method. 

–        The researcher examines the "real world" of "empirical facts" through the testing of "hypotheses" with the main goal of arriving at the ultimate "truth" and deriving "laws" (e.g., the law of falling bodies, the law of relativity).

•         This school of thought argues that humans do not have free will, that their behavior is determined by various biological, psychological and sociological factors. 

–        Thus, responsibility for one's actions is diminished

•         Need to address the various factors that are thought to be the most likely causes of why crime occurs in the first place (e.g., poverty, mental illness).

•         Make the punishment fit the offender, rather than fit the crime, as the classical school proposes.

–        The CJ system should try to rehabilitate the offender

 Quételet & Guerry 

•         Adolfe Quételet (a Belgium mathematician) and Andre-Michel Guerry (a French statistician) in Europe during the 1830s and 1840s were the first to do detailed statistical studies of crime.

•         Quételet found strong correlations between rates of crime and such factors as illiteracy, poverty, and similar variables

•         He also noted that these same variables remained the same as the highest crime rates continued to occur in the same parts of the city through several decades

•         Some called this school of thought the “Cartographic School” since it used maps to plot crimes within a certain geographic area.

•         Interestingly, this idea was to take hold in the early 20th century with the “Chicago School” and the “concentric zone” theory (more about this later)

 Cesare Lombroso  

•         Italian doctor who stressed the biological roots of crime and argued that there was such as thing as a “born criminal”

–        Such a person was a sort of an “atavistic” throwback with various stigmata or characteristics that are throwbacks to more primitive people. 

–        Criminals, said Lombroso, are essentially biologically inferior.

–        Like the Neanderthal Man

 •         Can you identify a “criminal”?

•         There continue to be stereotypes of what criminals “look like” within American society (with the media playing a major role in this).

•         Unfortunately many of these stereotypes center on race (mostly African-American and Hispanic) and class (mostly lower class or the “underclass”).

•         “Cops” on Fox is a good representation of many stereotypes. 

–        For instance, it seems as if just about everyone they arrest is a black man who is seen spread-eagled on the ground or against the hood of a police car, and not wearing a shirt.

 Variations of Positivistic Criminology

 •         Today there are three major versions of positivist criminology: biological (which began with Lombroso), psychological, and sociological.

–        Biological positivism locates the causes of crime within the individual's physical makeup;

–        psychological positivism suggests the causes are in faulty personality development;

–        sociological positivism stresses certain social factors within one's environment or surrounding culture and social structure

•         Some of these variations will be explored here, especially the sociological views.

 Body Types

 •         Humans can be divided into three basic body types or somatotypes.

•         These body types in turn are said to correspond to certain innate temperaments. 

•         Endomorph - excessive body weight and

–        Described as being “soft” and having  an extroverted personality (the stereotype of the “jolly fat man” comes to mind). 

•         Mesomorph - athletically built and muscular. 

–        Described as being active and behaving aggressively. 

–        Said to be most likely to be involved in serious criminal activity and to join gangs. 

•         Ectomorph - thin and delicate and having an introverted personality (they are also said to be loners and hence not likely to engage in crime).

 Criminality as an Inherited Trait

 •         Pretty much discredited within scientific circles, but some still claim there is a “criminal gene”

–        Alive and well today – see section called “Gene Warfare”

•         Mostly explained by social and cultural factors

•         No such thing as a “born criminal”

•         Likewise with the so-called XYY chromosome abnormality (see text)

–        One variation is PMS to explain female crime

 Psychological Theories

 •         Feeblemindedness and Crime – closely related to genetic theories, claiming that low IQ causes crime

–        This can easily be dismissed when considering white collar and corporate crime

•         Psychoanalytic Theories – based largely upon Freud’s theories (id, ego, superego)

•         Mental illness and crime

–        Although it has never been proven that various kinds of mental illnesses “cause” crime, it is nevertheless true that a large proportion of inmates (as many as 1/3) have suffered from one or more symptoms of various mental diseases.

 The Psychopathic Personality

 •         This is a variation of the “personality trait” perspective noted in the text (but a topic I only mentioned in passing)

•         What is interesting is that a researcher came to the conclusion that the characteristics associated with this personality type fit the modern American corporation!

 Institutional Characteristics of Corporations & Psychopathic Traits

     •         Irresponsible – in an attempt to satisfy the corporate goal (profits) everybody else is put at risk

•         Manipulative – they try to manipulate everything, including public opinion, not to mention politicians

•         Grandiose – we’re no. 1 or the best

•         Lack of empathy and asocial tendencies – no concern with victims

•         Refuse to accept responsibility and unable to feel remorse – when corporations get caught breaking the law they pay big fines and then continue doing what they were doing before

•         Relates to others superficially – present themselves to the public as doing good, when in fact they may not

•         psychopaths use charm to hide what they are really all about

 Key Sociological Theories

 Social Disorganization/Social Ecology  

•         Crime stems from certain community or neighborhood characteristics, such as poverty, dilapidated housing, high density, high mobility, and high rates of unemployment.

–        Concentric zone theory is a variation that argues that crime increases toward the inner city area.

 Social Ecology 

•         One of the key ideas of the social ecology of crime is the fact that high rates of crime and other problems persist within the same neighborhoods over long periods of time regardless of who lives there.

–        Thus there must be something about the places themselves, perhaps something about the neighborhoods, rather than the people per se that produces and perpetuates high crime rates

•         One explanation is the Concentric zone theory which argues that crime increases toward the inner city area

•         Studies of the rates of crime and delinquency, especially by sociologists Henry Shaw and David McKay in Chicago, demonstrated that over an extended period of time, the highest rates were found within the first three zones no matter who lived there. These high rates were strongly correlated with such social problems as mental illness, unemployment, poverty, infant mortality, and many others

 Illustrations of Concentric Zones 

For examples go to this web site: http://images.google.com/images?q=concentric+zone+model&hl=en&rls=RNWN,RNWN:2006-42,RNWN:en&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=images&ct=title

 Why is Crime So High the nearer you get into the inner-city? 

•         According to the Concentric Zone view, this is caused by a breakdown of institutional, community-based controls, which in turn is caused by three general factors: industrialization, urbanization, and immigration.

•         People living within these areas often lack a sense of community because the local institutions (e.g., schools, families, and churches) are not strong enough to provide nurturing and guidance for the area’s children.

•         It is important to note that there are important political and economic forces at work here.

•         The concentration of human and social problems within these zones is not the inevitable “natural” result of some abstract laws of nature but rather the actions of some of the most powerful groups in a city (urban planners, politicians, wealthy business leaders, and so on).

 Thrasher’s Theory of Gangs 

•         Frederic Thrasher did the first detailed study of gangs in Chicago in the 1920s

•         He concluded that the control mechanisms of local institutions is revealed by:

–        the disintegration of family life

–        inefficiency of schools

–        formalism and externality of religion

–        corruption and indifference in local politics

–        low wages and monotony in occupational activities

–        Unemployment

–        Lack of opportunity for wholesome recreation.

•         All these factors enter into the picture of the moral and economic frontier

•         Coupled with deterioration in the housing, sanitation, and other conditions of life in the slum, gives the impression of general disorganization and decay.

•         The gang functions with reference to these conditions in two ways

–        It offers a substitute for what society fails to give

–        It provides a relief from suppression and distasteful behavior. It fills a gap and affords an escape

 Strain/Anomie Theory 

•         Cultural norms of “success” emphasize such goals as money, status, and power, while the means to obtain such success are not equally distributed

–        As a result of blocked opportunities many among the disadvantaged resort to illegal means, which are more readily available.

•         The concept of anomie refers to inconsistencies between societal conditions and opportunities for growth, fulfillment, and productivity within a society

–        The term anomia has been used to refer to those who experience personal frustration and alienation as a result of anomie within a society).

•         It also involves the weakening of the normative order of society- that is, norms (rules, laws, and so on) lose their impact on people.

•         Anomie was first used by 19th Century sociologist Emile Durkheim who described it as follows:

–        Under capitalism there is a more or less chronic state of “deregulation” and that industrialization had removed traditional social controls on aspirations.

–        The capitalist culture produces in humans a constant dissatisfaction resulting in a never-ending longing for more and more.

–        And there is never enough - whether this be money, material things, or power.

–        There is a morality under capitalism that dictates “anything goes,” especially when it comes to making money (it certainly applies to the modern corporation).

•         The basic thesis of strain theory is this: Crime stems from the lack of articulation or “fit” between two of the most basic components of society: culture and social structure

•         Culture consists of

–        the main value and goal orientations or “ends” and

–        the institutionalized or legitimate means for attaining these goals.

•         Social structure, as used here, consists of the basic social institutions of society, especially the economy, but also such institutions as the family, education, and politics, all of which are responsible for distributing access to the legitimate means for obtaining goals.

•         This “lack of fit” creates strain within individuals, who respond with various forms of deviance.

•         Thus people who find themselves at a disadvantage relative to legitimate economic activities are motivated to engage in illegitimate activities (perhaps because of unavailability of jobs, lack of job skills, education, and other factors).

•         Within a capitalist society like United States, the main emphasis is on the “success” goals, while less emphasis is on the legitimate means to achieve these goals.

•         Moreover, these goals have become institutionalized in that they are deeply embedded into the psyches of everyone via a very powerful system of corporate propaganda.

•         At the same time, the legitimate means are not as well defined or as strongly ingrained. In other words, there is a lot of discretion and a lot of tolerance for deviance from the means but not the goals. One result of such a system is high levels of crime.

•         Another important point made by strain theory is that our culture contributes to crime because the opportunities to achieve success goals are not equally distributed.

•         We have a strong class structure and incredible inequality within our society, which means that some have extreme disadvantages over others.

•         Another way of saying the same thing is that culture promises what the social structure cannot deliver, that being equal access to opportunities to achieve success. People faced with this contradiction (one of many under capitalism) face pressures, or “strains,” to seek alternatives.

 Crime and the American Dream 

•         The pursuit of the “American dream” creates a high rate of crime

•         Core values of the Dream

–        Achievement

–        Individualism

–        Universalism

–        Fetishism of Money

•         There is a "dark side" to the American Dream, which stems from a contradiction in American capitalism

–        the same forces that promote "progress" and "ambition" also produce a lot of crime since there is such an incredible pressure to succeed "at any cost."

An example of the importance of money is taken from an early rock and roll song called "Money" by Barrett Strong with words included here:

Delinquency and Opportunity 

•         Blocked opportunity aspirations cause poor self‑concepts and feelings of frustration and

•         These frustrations lead to delinquency, especially within a gang context.

•         A key concept here is differential opportunity structure, which is an uneven distribution of legal and illegal means of achieving economic success, especially as they are unequally available according to class and race.

 Social Embeddedness 

•         For disadvantaged youths, involvement in crime begins well before they can legally be involved in the labor market.

•         just as one can become socially embedded in the world of regular job contacts and the world of work, so too can one become embedded in a network of crime and deviance.

•         In most of the high‑crime, inner‑city neighborhoods, the odd jobs of middle‑class youths noted above do not exist in large number (for example, in the projects there are no lawns to be mowed).

 Cultural Deviance Theories 

•         criminal values and traditions emerge within communities most affected by social disorganization

•         Cohen's “culture of the gang” perspective

–        a high proportion of lower‑class youths (especially males) do poorly in school;

–        poor school performance relates to delinquency;

–        poor school performance stems from a conflict between dominant middle‑class values of the school system and values of lower‑class youths; and

–        most lower‑class male delinquency is committed in a gang context, partly as a means of meeting some basic human needs, such as self‑esteem and belonging.

 Lower Class Focal Concerns  

•         Basic thesis:

–        there are concerns (norms and values) within the lower‑class culture and

–        female‑dominated households are an important feature within the lower class and are a major reason for the emergence of street‑corner male adolescent groups in these neighborhoods

•         Two key concepts here are

–        (1) focal concerns, which include trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy; and

–        (2) one‑sex peer units that serve as alternative sources of companionship and male role model development outside the home

 Focal Concerns of lower class culture

     •         Trouble

•         Toughness

•         Smartness

•         Excitement

•         Fate

•         Autonomy

 One‑sex peer group 

•         Very important because:

–        Gangs provide male members opportunities to prove their own masculinity in the absence of an adequate male role model within their family of origin.

–        The principal unit in lower‑class society is an age‑graded, one‑sex peer group constituting the major psychic focus and reference group for young people.

–        The adolescent street‑corner group is one variant of the lower‑class structure, and the gang is a subtype distinguished by law‑violating activities  

Belonging and status 

•         two central concerns of the adolescent street‑corner group are belonging and status

–        One achieves belonging by adhering to the group’s standards and values and continues to achieve belonging by demonstrating such characteristics as toughness, smartness, and autonomy.

–        When there is conflict with other norms (for example, middle‑class norms), the norms of the group are far more compelling because failure to conform means expulsion from the group.

–        Status is achieved by demonstrating qualities adolescents value (for example, smartness, toughness, and others, as defined by lower‑class culture).  

Control/ social bond theory 

•         Instead of asking “Why do they do it?” this theory asks “Why don't they do it?”

•         What prevents people from crime is that we are “bonded” to society, especially the norms of society that we have internalized.

•         There are four major elements of this bond:

–        Attachment

–        Involvement

–        Commitment

–        Belief

 Social Learning Theory       

•         Simply put, criminal behavior is learned, just like anything else

•         Sutherland’s “differential association” is the most famous variation

–        The key point is that one becomes a delinquent/criminal because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law

–        Over time, the duration and intensity of association with others involved in crime further reinforces one’s own values and behavior.

 Techniques of Neutralization

 •         Rationalizations

–     He deserved it

–     Appeal to higher loyalties (e.g., peer group, doing it for the hood)

–     Everyone else does it

–     No one was harmed

 Labeling Perspective 

•         three key parts:

–        (1) how and why certain behaviors are defined as criminal or deviant;

–        (2) the response to crime or deviance on the part of authorities (for example, the official processing of cases from arrest through sentencing); and

–        (3) the effects of such definitions and official reactions on the person or persons so labeled.

•         This view does not concern itself with why people violate the law in the first place, but rather the effects of how society reacts to law breaking

 Primary and secondary deviance 

•         Primary deviance includes acts that the perpetrator and/or others believe are not indicative of one's true identity or character. 

–        Commonly expressed by others as "this is not like you."

•         Secondary deviance refers to a process whereby the deviance takes on self-identifying features

–        that is, deviant acts begin to be considered as indicative of one's true self, the way one "really" is

•         Guilt v. shame

–        Guilt – you did something bad (primary)

–        Shame – you are a bad person (secondary)

 Social reality of crime  

•         Based upon the view that “crime” is a matter of definition resulting from a social process

•         A key term is “power” which helps shape legislation, as law often reflects the interests of the most powerful groups

•         Six propositions offered in the text describe how the “reality of crime” is created and perpetuated.

•         Based upon the view of society as “segmented” into different class, racial, gender and other divisions, each with their own interests.

Critical/Marxist Perspectives 

•         capitalism produces a number of problems including crime

•         material conditions is key term

–        Class, gender and racial inequalities

–        Big economic changes (downsizing, etc.) produce problems including crime

•         Surplus population or underclass is created

•         crime control industry is another result – crime is functional for capitalism